The Doctor Bones
Science Demonstrations Show
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Fun experiments in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Engineering



handwave1.jpgHello, I'm Doctor Bones.
I'm a Science Learning Specialist.



to the

Science Demonstrations Show!

Check out the videos


_Hand-points1.gif __Doc Bones on Cablevision___



_Hand-points1.gif __Science Show on News 12 NJ



_Hand-points1.gif __Doc Bones - Science Night


More Science Videos by Doc Bones!
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Science is Fun !

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The Doctor Bones "Science Demonstrations Show" has seen action in K-12 schools throughout the United States.
Doctor Bones helps clear up some of the misconceptions that students have about science. The Doctor also assists teachers in adding fun and excitement to the learning of biology, chemistry, earth science, engineering and physics. The show's theme is, "Science Really Can Be Fun!"


Doctor Bones
is part Educator___and part Entertainer!


As Doctor Bones, I work closely with the administrators and teachers
who invite me to perform "Science Magic" for their school and after-school events. Each performance is tailored to the needs of the prospective science teacher.

The Science Demonstrations Show is not only fun and educational, it is also intended to be a continuing resource for science teachers. The science teaching techniques and demonstrations introduced in the show are made available for duplication by teachers.


The Doctor Bones website is also a useful resource for teachers. The information provided by the website is intended to help teachers sell the benefits of learning science to their students. Energize lethargic students with the action learning ideas, visual aids and other science learning tools suggested by Doctor Bones.

Let Doctor Bones, the Science Learning Specialist, assist you in making science more fun and exciting for your students!


The goal is to supplement rather than to supplant a school's science curricula. A number of fun, safe, kid-tested science projects are introduced to teachers in order for them to help reinforce the basic science concepts learned in the show. When the show is over, Doctor Bones may be gone, but the important science concepts and principles will not soon be forgotten.

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Why do I perform these Science Shows?


"The Need for a Science Educated Public"__

As the 21st century unfolds, we the people of the United States of America will undoubtedly witness many exciting scientific and technological developments. Scientists will continue their quest to unravel the complexities of the universe and engineers will create and develop new high tech gadgets to make our lives better.


Although many Americans appear to have a general fascination with science and technology, for the most part, they tend to lack a basic understanding of important concepts and principles in science and technology.

____Science
_______An Important Part of a Balanced Education.

Unless significant strides are made to teach science to the public in a way that they can understand and appreciate it is likely that the average citizen will continue to fall further and further behind the science and technology learning curve. With each passing year, it becomes even more pressing, I believe, that we as a Nation become more "science literate."

In using the term "science literate," I do not hope to suggest that the science literate person is one who has solely accumulated a set of science facts or trivia. Instead, the science literate person that I speak of, is one who can weave science facts into a tapestry of science knowledge and connect these facts with "real world" science and technology applications.

With continued motivation from the scientific community, I believe that we can create a more "science literate" populace. To keep the science literacy ball rolling, it is imperative that scientists like Doctor Bones get involved with the surrounding community (especially the K-12 crowd). In addition to being science information specialists, it wouldn't hurt if these same scientists proclaimed vigorously that "Science is Fun," because it really is fun!



From Physics Central


http://www.physicscentral.com/people/2006/mueller.html

Don Mueller "aka Doctor Bones"



In a previous gig, Don Mueller was a chemical physicist. Nowadays, he is better known as Dr. Bones—educator, entertainer and crusader for reliable science and health information.

Transforming himself into Dr. Bones, Mueller dons what he calls his "bad hair day" wig, white lab coat and thick black plastic glasses. Now it's on to schools, hospitals and other venues throughout the United States to perform science and health shows.

Mueller’s mission is to show kids and adults that science is fun, along with its many practical applications. He chose the name Dr. Bones because kids learn about the bones of the body before they investigate other bodily structures. However, he adds, "I could just as well have chosen the name Dr. Science or Dr. Health or Dr. Whatever. ”

Dr. Bones’ science demos are fairly simple. "Safety comes first in my show. Nothing explodes or is set ablaze" says Mueller. A favorite demo of his to illustrate gravity and the curvature of space-time features a medicine ball at the center of several square yards of a stretchy black fabric and a number of small plastic or rubber spheres revolving around the center. He also makes batteries out of lemons to light LEDs, launches rockets to demonstrate thrust, spins bicycle wheels to explain angular momentum and torque, and juggles pumpkins while talking about the interplay between potential and kinetic energy. He isn't particularly concerned if his audience forgets the specifics of what he’s taught. "What's more important is that I'm encouraging them to think for themselves and explore their imagination," says Mueller.

Performing these shows takes brainpower and a lot of stamina. “If I had been one of the Knights of the Round Table they would have called me Sir Sweat-a-Lot,” he says jokingly in response to all the moving around and sweating he does during the show.

When he’s not playing Dr. Bones, Mueller takes on yet another persona. Wearing a big yellow hexagon on his head, a superhero-type shirt emblazoned with a circle and the equation A= pr2 and a red cape adorned with brightly colored geometric shapes, Mueller becomes “Geometry Guy,” saving the world from math ignorance.

For instance, Geometry Guy shows kids how to make various shapes using Popsicle stick triangles. “There are so many interesting constructions you can form with, say, three to six separate triangles. The kids are just mesmerized when I do this,” says Mueller. “I’m mesmerized too, because I usually stumble upon a number of interesting shapes that I hadn't considered at the start.”

Mueller performs his Dr. Bones and Geometry Guy shows for kids of all ages, as well as for adults. In addition to his science shows, Mueller performs shows emphasizing reliable science-based health information, all while juggling plastic foods and informing his audience about healthy diets. All of his shows are sprinkled with jokes, puns and storytelling. “I probably have more fun than a person should have. But I love it!” he says.

As part of his crusade to educate the public about good science, Mueller performs “QuackBusters,” a show in which he delineates the basics of good science versus pseudoscience and other so-called junk sciences. He often brings the show to senior citizen groups, because they are particularly vulnerable to health quackery, he says. He teaches seniors how to spot quackery and avoid wasting their money on products such as magnetic and ionic bracelets and on the multitude of quack services offering miracle cures to common ailments.

Prior to the advent of Dr. Bones and Geometry Guy, Don Mueller was a chemical physicist, and before that a professional baseball player (although he didn’t reach the major leagues). After sustaining several injuries to his pitching arm, he left baseball and returned to science, which he had enjoyed as a kid. However, Mueller has not given up sports-- he continues to play ambidextrous tennis. Playing simultaneously with two rackets or switching the racket from one hand to the other, Mueller plays several times a week, and is always on the lookout for challenging matches.

As a graduate student at Rutgers University under the supervision of John Krenos, Mueller worked on a series of electronic energy transfer experiments involving metastable rare gas atoms and a variety of small molecule collision partners. After completing his Ph.D., Mueller did postdoctoral research in laser chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania and in Taiwan at the Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences. On Fridays, during the summer swelter of Taipei, he often found himself sneaking away from the lab to perform as Dr. Bones for the kids at National Taiwan University Children's Hospital in Taipei. He received an award from the hospital, which he says is without a doubt his most cherished.

Mueller now lives in Monsey, NY. Although he says that it is possible for him to make a living from his science and health show work, he also teaches physics and chemistry at Bergen Community College ( Paramus, NJ ). He has also developed a small line of educational products, including geometric cookies, lollipops and toys, a periodic table of elements cereal known as "Elementary" and “Nutri-Brain” physics cookies, which have various physics equations stamped on them. Lawyers representing the Kellogg’s company convinced the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office not to grant Mueller a registered trademark for Nutri-Brain, insisting that Nutri-Brain cookies infringed on their trademark Nutri Grain cereal bars. The decision does not prohibit Mueller from using the name Nutri-Brain as an unregistered mark. Stay tuned, he says.

Mueller will continue to perform his science and health shows and crusade against junk science for as long as he can. “There isn't a retirement bone in me,” he says. “People can say that I’m a savior or that I’m a fool.” He just laughs at both suggestions.



Some Newspaper Articles about The Doctor Bones Science Show along with some of the nice letters of recommendation.


















Chemistry professor called 'invaluable'

RICH LOGIS
THE TIMES (Journal News Weekly)

(Original publication: March 26, 2004)

There's too much misinformation about science out there, according to Don Mueller.

And it's all Jerry Seinfeld's fault, the Manhattanville science professor joked. Well, maybe not all of it is Seinfeld's fault, Mueller said. But between the media, politicians and popular culture, too many unqualified people consider themselves science experts, he said.

So Mueller, a visiting chemistry professor at Manhattanville since last year, set out to combat pseudo science. He created "Science and Society," a course that looks at the influence of science on politics, business and technology.

Mueller said he likes to host debates in class because it's important to make students feel comfortable speaking about their opinions. It's also important to clarify any misconceptions about science that students may have. "I try to get them to see that the headlines they see in the paper don't always give them the knowledge they need."

Mueller said he's heard many politicians over the years talk about science and "the sad part is their audience listens to that and thinks they know what they're talking about." Such misinformation also pops up in entertainment, he said, citing a "Seinfeld" episode that wrongly explained the molecular make-up of a valet driver's body odor.

'The Doctor Bones Show'

A Monsey resident, Mueller goes by the nickname Dr. Bones. The moniker is drawn from science experiment shows he holds for children called the "Doctor Bones Show." Since the human bone structure is one of the first science lessons children receive in school, Mueller said, he adopted "Bones" because children commonly ask questions about bones.

Paid for and hosted by schools all over the country, the shows include a variety of experiments. One experiment involved Mueller holding a hair dryer. While the hot air is blowing, a ping-pong ball is dropped in the hot air stream. As the ball appears to float, a 4-foot tube is placed over the ball, causing the ball to shoot out.

Mueller has taught at Penn State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences in Taiwan and Rutgers University, where he earned a doctorate in chemical physics.

At Manhattanville, Mueller helped found the Science Club, which is open to students of all majors. Club members will participate in demonstrations, experiments, trips and, Mueller hopes, debates.

Emerald Shenk, a sophomore, founded the Science Club with Mueller. She said with few chemistry professors at the college, Mueller has been invaluable to the department. Aside from his knowledge, Mueller has brought equipment that the students otherwise wouldn't have had, Shenk said. "He always has the students' best interests in mind," Shenk said. "He always makes himself available, and he's an interesting guy." Shenk said with his leadership, the Science Club will be an enriching educational experience for members. "He's an important person here on campus. And he's a fun character."

Mueller's doctoral adviser at Rutgers, chemistry professor John Krenos, said Mueller was one of the finest students ever in the department. He described Mueller as relentlessly creative, motivated and self-sufficient. "He's blazed his own trail," Krenos said. "He was always serious and committed and didn't need a lot of guidance and supervision." Mueller's doctoral thesis, at 700 pages, was impressive in its scope and scholarship, Krenos said. He also praised Mueller for the children's shows he founded. "I'm amazed by what he's done since he left. He's one of a kind."








Sarah Wells Girl Scout Council
162 Bloomingburg Road
Middletown, NY 10940

Don R. Mueller, Ph.D.
200 Kearsing Pkwy. Apt. H
Monsey, NY 10952


August 10, 2005


Dear Doctor Bones:

If the third time is truly the charm, then having you perform your Science Demonstrations Show for the Sarah Wells Girl Scouts for the third year in a row was just that. You were fantastic! The many hands-on science demos that you presented helped the girls learn important concepts and principles in biology, chemistry and physics in both fun and exciting ways. Your combination of science and showmanship was greatly appreciated by all.

It was wonderful how you offered the parents in attendance creative, inexpensive ways to help their kids do "real" science at home. It didn't take long for you to win over your audience judging by the wealth of participation by the girls in experiments involving energy, gravity, Bernoulli's principle, angular momentum and torque and plenty more!

The hot-air balloon experiment was particularly exciting as the girls helped you launch the 5-foot tall balloon upward using the hot air from the two hair dryers. It took awhile to get the balloon off the ground and all the way to the top of the gym, but we did it! Then you told the girls that persistence is important both in science and in life. I'm sure they will remember that.

Thanks again for encouraging the girls to take an interest in science, especially those girls who don't really like science to give science a try. Your science show surely backs up your saying, "Science is Fun!"

Together in Girl Scouting,

Deborah L. Palen

Deborah L. Palen
Programs Manager
Sarah Wells Girl Scout Council, Inc.













Science is really_ _! _

Come inside for some Cool Science_!!



It's Time_alarmclockanim1.jpg_to start the Show!

_Please feel free to stay awhile. We have much to offer you in the way of Science Education and Entertainment.


The Doctor Bones Science Demonstrations Show presents a wide variety of exciting, easy to understand Hands-on Science experiments to K-12 students and their teachers.

In a fun-filled performance that typically lasts about one-hour, we examine important concepts and principles used in Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics and Engineering.
The show always proves to be an enjoyable learning experience for both Doctor Bones and his audience.

In what follows, we present just a handful of the many topics that have been featured in the show over the years and some of the highlights from the always entertaining, Doctor Bones Science Demonstrations Show.


These experiments are designed to be readily duplicated both for school use by teachers and for home use by parents interested in encouraging their kids to try science!
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Highlights from the Science Demo Show



Let's start with a fun Biology-related (anatomy & physiology) experiment for you to try called,

The Lung Capacity Experiment_


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Here we see Doctor Bones helping students measure their lung's Vital Capacity (VC). This is the maximum volume of air that they can exhale from their lungs after taking a really deep breath. In scientific jargon, the VC is the maximum volume that can be expired after a maximal inspiration.

Of course, a small volume of air remains in the lungs even after forcefully exhaling and this is known as the residual volume (RV). The RV is only about one-quarter (25%) of the VC. For example, the average pair of adult human lungs holds about 6 liters of air, 1.5 liters of which is the residual volume.

A person's total lung capacity (TLC) equals the volume when the lungs are fully inflated. This is equal to the vital capacity (VC) plus the residual volume (RV): _TLC = VC + RV.

The volume of air that we normally breathe in and out while resting is called the Tidal Volume (TV). The tidal volume is approximately 0.5 liters for an adult.

Doctors use a device called a spirometer (spiro means, "to breathe" in Latin) to measure both the volume of air expelled and how quickly (the flow rate) the air was expelled from the lungs. The diagram below is from the Merck Manual of Medical Information, Second Home Edition.

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http://www.merck.com/mmhe/index.html


The Lung Capacity Experiment that Doctor Bones performs is easy to set up. You will need the following items:

A bottle or jug

_water-bottle3.jpg that has a volume of at least 4 liters (for adults use a jug of a least 6 liters). Before you start the experiment you will need to calibrate the jug. You can do this by adding a specific amount of water and then marking its volume where the water line meets the jug. For example, start out by adding 1 liter of water to the jug. Now place a mark (1-liter) where you see the water line. Then add 0.5 liters. Where you see the new water line, mark 1.5 liters. Add another 0.5 liters and mark 2.0 liters where you see the water line. Continue this process in 0.5-liter increments until you have filled or nearly have filled the water jug.

It is not necessary to know the exact volume of the container. What is important is to know with a reasonable degree of certainty how much water you have added incrementally to the jug. These are the numbers that you will have marked on the side of the jug, starting from the bottom of the jug and moving upward toward the opening.


After filling the jug to the top with water, you then
turn it upside down
water-bottle3A.jpginto a shallow tank of water without spilling the water out of the jug. You do this by holding your hand over the opening of the jug until the opening is under water. Now you can let go. The water will stay in the jug in accordance with the natural law, which states, "two things cannot occupy the same space at the same time."

You are now ready to enter a plastic tube or rubber hose
of a few feet in length into the opening of the jug in order for you to blow the water out if the jug. However, before you commence blowing the water out, I suggest for purposes of good hygiene that you add a mouthpiece to the end of the tube or hose. All those trying the experiment should have their own mouthpiece. A good idea is to use the end of a party favor, for example, like the ones people blow into to celebrate the coming of the New Year.


Plastic Tube or Rubber Hose_____________Party Favor

_____________________



The figure below shows what the typical set-up looks like.


______Don't forget the mouthpiece.



It's Time to Collect the Data


Now that you have your set-up ready to go, it is time to run the experiment and collect the data. With this experiment, it is possible in a 30-minute period, for example, to collect volume
measurements for at least 10 to 15 students. Record the student's age and inform the student take a few deep breaths as a warm-up before blowing forcefully into the hose or tube. Remember, only one deep breath counts as the volume measurement, in this case, the student's vital capacity.


Analyzing the Data

With volume measurements in hand, the next step is to analyze the data. You might consider using a bar graph if you are comparing boys versus girls of the same age. You could compare, for example, the average vital capacity volume (liters) for the girls to the average value obtained for the boys. A sample bar graph is shown below, for the vital capacity data obtained from six boys and six girls all age 12.


___Average Vital Capacity in Liters for Boys and Girls (Age 12)
___________


To add more fun and excitement to this experiment it never fails to compare the vital capacity measurements of some willing teachers to those of the students. The students really enjoy watching the teachers, blow into the water jug! The next bar graph shows how the male and female teachers at one school stack up against the students. The additional experimental data was obtained from testing four male teachers and four female teachers of various ages. No, they did not reveal their ages! Nor did I ask. Doctor Bones is a pretty smart guy.


___Average Vital Capacity in Liters for Male and Female Teachers
__________________________and
__________________Boys and Girls (Age 12)
___________

[The National Center for Education Statistics (
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/index.asp?flash=true) has a nice Create a Graph program that you might like to try out for making Area, Bar and Line graphs and Pie Charts.]


From the data, you can assure the students that as they grow their vital capacity will increase. You might also mention, that
through regular exercise, everyone can increase their vital capacity. More importantly, by not smoking, students will prevent their vital capacity from diminishing over time. Of course, avoiding diseases induced by cigarette smoking, such as lung cancer and emphysema is always a good topic for discussion. This is why I bring along Mr. Cigarette to these shows. After stimulating their lungs, students have the opportunity to punch Mr. Cigarette in the nose and "Give Cigarettes a Knockout Punch !!! "


___Doctor Bones gives Mr. Cigarette a Knockout Punch!

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doc16.jpg______




Chemical Reactions



______Chemistry is _ _____


_The Electrolysis of Water

_______Using Electricity to "Split" Water


Over the years, Doctor Bones has performed many exciting chemical reactions as part of the Science Demonstrations Show. One of the easiest to set-up is an electrochemical reaction known as the electrolysis of water, which is the "splitting" of water using electricity.


______"Splitting" Water


As far back as 1800, the English chemists
William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used electrolysis to demonstrate that water could be decomposed into two volumes of hydrogen gas and one volume of oxygen gas. In the electrolysis of water, electricity in the form of a battery is used to convert H2O(l) liquid into hydrogen H2(g) gas and oxygen O2(g) gas. The net reaction is as follows:


___ 2 H2O_(l)_
_2 H2_(g)_ + _O2_(g)


Chemists prefer to say that two moles of H2(g) and one mole of O2(g) are produced for every two moles of H2O(l) that decompose in this reaction. Figure 1 shows how a battery connected to two electrodes immersed in a salty or acidic aqueous (meaning water) solution is used to decompose water. Figure 1 also depicts the 2:1 volumetric ratio of hydrogen gas to oxygen gas found by Nicholson and Carlisle.


_______Electrolysis of Water



[The concept of the mole is a useful one in chemistry. A mole of molecules, for example, is a very large number of molecules, approximately
6.0 x 1023 molecules! This number is called Avogadro's number in honor of the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro's Hypothesis (now known as Avogadro's Law) dictates that equal volumes of pure gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of gas molecules regardless of the type of gas.]





The set-up for this experiment is easy:

This is the electrolysis set-up used by the good people at the
Worsley School OnLine (http://www.wcsscience.com/electrolysis/ofwater.html). You will need a 9-volt battery as your power source and two graphite pencils to serve as electrodes. A shallow bowl or deep dish can be used to which an inch or two of water is added. A little bit of table salt is stirred into the water in order to create an ionic or "saltwater" solution. Ionic solutions conduct electricity. Table salt, which is also known as sodium chloride (NaCl) is a good electrolyte and dissolves readily in water.

Pure water (distilled) is actually a very poor conductor of electricity. Therefore, dilute acids or bases or various salts are added in order to enhance the electrical conductivity.

The saltwater reaction can be a bit slow because the current provided by a 9-volt battery is weak. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is sometimes added to speed up the reaction. However, because H2SO4 is a strong acid and is therefore potentially dangerous (especially with children to consider) it is safer to use Na2SO4 (known as sodium sulfate or "Glauber's salt") instead. You can purchase sodium sulfate as Glauber's salt at a local pharmacy and make your own dilute solutions.

As shown in figure 2, the pencils, which are sharpened on both ends, are connected to the battery using small gauge insulated copper wire. One pencil is connected to the positive (+) terminal of the battery and the other pencil is connected to the negative (-) terminal. The negative terminal is called the cathode and the positive terminal is called the anode. You can use electrical tape as shown or a pair of alligator clips.




_______
_______________Alligator Clips

______________Figure 2


Upon entering the two electrodes into the saltwater solution you will see gas bubbles forming at each electrode. As shown in figure 3, oxygen gas bubbles form at the
positive (+) electrode (anode) and hydrogen gas bubbles appear at the negative (-) electrode (cathode). The two electrodes form what is referred to as an electrochemical cell.


______
___O2_(g) _and_ H2_(g) _bubbles form.

_____________
Figure 3


With this set-up we do not collect the two gases. If you would like to collect the H2(g) and O2(g), you might try using the next set-up, which adds two inverted test tubes in order to trap the two gases. The test tube on the left-hand side of figure 4, was used to collect H2(g) and the one on the right-hand side was used to collect O2(g). As you can see, the respective H2(g) and O2(g) volumes appear to agree with the 2:1 volumetric ratio found by Nicholson and Carlisle more than two hundred years ago.


_________Collecting_ H2_(g) _and_ O2_(g)

________________
Figure 4


After collecting the two gases in the inverted small test tubes you might like to test them to make sure that you actually have H2(g) and O2(g). Before removing the two test tubes from the water you first need to stopper them while the mouths of the test tubes are still under water. Once they are stoppered you can turn them stopper-side up.

To test for
H2(g), first prepare a burning wood splint, then remove the stopper and quickly insert the splint into the mouth of the test tube. However, try not to drop the burning splint into the water or else it will go out. If the gas leaving the test tube is hydrogen you will hear a little "pop" telling you that the highly flammable hydrogen gas has ignited.

To test for
O2(g), prepare a burning wood splint, then blow out the flame. Now you have a glowing splint that you quickly insert into the mouth of the test tube that you suspect contains oxygen gas. The glowing wood splint should re-ignite indicating the presence of oxygen gas.


A Little Bit About Electrochemical Cells

Before we examine the specific reactions taking place at the two electrodes (anode and cathode) in this experiment, it would be useful to talk a little bit about a topic called "redox," which is short for "reduction" and "oxidation."

The two electrodes of an electrochemical cell are called the anode, which is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode, which is the negative (-) electrode. Oxidation takes place at the anode and reduction takes place at the cathode. In chemistry, oxidation is a term that is used to signify a loss of electrons from an atom or molecule, while reduction is a term used to describe a gain of electrons.

For example, if iron (II) is oxidized to iron (III), then the following oxidation reaction has taken place:

Fe+2_
_Fe+3 + e-

Oxidation has increased the oxidation state of iron (Fe) from +2 to +3.


The reverse reaction is a reduction reaction, whereby iron (III) gains an electron to form iron (II).


Fe+3 +
e-_
_Fe+2

Reduction has decreased the oxidation state of iron (Fe) from +3 to +2.


There's a fun way for you to remember the difference between oxidation and reduction and it's called, "LEO the lion says GER."

LEO stands for Loss - of - Electrons - is - Oxidation

GER stands for Gain - of - Electrons - is - Reduction


Oxidation-reduction reactions come in pairs, known collectively as "redox" reactions. In other words, a redox reaction matches an oxidation reaction with a corresponding reduction reaction. When one species in the redox pair is being oxidized then the other species in the pair must be reduced and vice versa. Both reactions in the redox pair are called half-reactions. When we add the two half-reactions (reduction and oxidation) we arrive at the overall reaction.


What reactions are taking place at the two electrodes?

Now that we know something about oxidation and reduction, let's continue with the "saltwater" solution used in figures 2 and 3.
Hydrogen gas forms at the negative (-) electrode (cathode) where reduction takes place. Reduction is a gain of electrons. Oxygen gas forms at the positive (+) electrode (anode) where oxidation takes place. Oxidation is a loss of electrons. The respective electrochemical reactions occurring at the two electrodes for the saltwater solution are as follows:

Saltwater Solution

Cathode Reaction:___
4 H2O_ +_ 4 e-_ _2 H2_ + _4 OH-

Anode Reaction:_____
2 H2O_
_O2_ + _4 H+_+ _4 e-
_______________________________________________________

Overall Reaction:___6 H2O ___2 H2 _+ O2_ +_ 4 H+_+ _4 OH-



Net Reaction:_____2 H2O__
_2 H2_ + _O2


Did you know that the reverse of this reaction
can be used to produce electricity?



It's true! Hydrogen and oxygen are combined in a pollution-free device called a hydrogen fuel cell, producing water as a
byproduct along with electrical energy. Fuel in the form of hydrogen is fed to the anode of the fuel cell and oxygen is fed to the cathode. The anode and cathode reactions along with the net reaction are as follows:

Anode Reaction:__________2 H2_ _4 H+_+ _4 e-

Cathode Reaction:_________
O2_ + _4 H+_+ _4 e-_
__ 2 H2O
__________________________________________________

Net reaction:_____________
2 H2 _+ O2_
__2 H2O


Like a battery, hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity. However, unlike a conventional battery, which eventually dies if not recharged, a fuel cell never dies. That is, as long as there is a flow of hydrogen and oxygen into the cell, which also requires certain electrolytic and catalytic materials for its operation.

Although there has been a great deal of interest in fuel cells in recent times, the fuel cell concept actually dates back to the 1800's. It was the
British lawyer and scientist, Sir William Robert Grove (known as the “Father of the Fuel Cell”) who in 1839 constructed a device he called a “gas voltaic battery.” Grove's gas battery, which used hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, was the forerunner of modern fuel cells. The term “fuel cell” was later coined in 1889 by the chemist and industrialist Ludwig Mond and his assistant Charles Langer, when they attempted to use air and coal gas to generate electricity.


____"Father of the Fuel Cell"__________

__________________________________________Sir William Robert Grove (1811–1896)






How Airplanes Fly
____


__
__


At first glance it doesn’t seem that such a heavy object like an airplane could fly. However, like the wings of a bird, the wings of an airplane can create enough “lift” to overcome the weight of the airplane and get it off the ground and fly.


____


To create lift the airplane must be moving forward. The airplane’s engine produces the “thrust,” which is the forward force acting on the airplane that is used to create lift. The thrust must also be great enough to overcome the force of the resistance from the air, a frictional force we ca